Numerical Simulation and Structural Evaluation of Earthen Masonry Systems Built with Optimized Granite-Lime Stabilized Compressed Earth Blocks
Main Article Content
Abstract
This study adopts a combined experimental and numerical finite element research design to evaluate the structural performance and engineering characteristics of Compressed Earth Blocks (CEBs) stabilized with industrial Granite Waste Powder (GWP, 0–15%) and hydrated lime (0–6%). Rapid urban growth and the high carbon footprint of Portland cement necessitate sustainable, low-carbon structural alternatives for affordable housing. An experimental design evaluating 13 mix formulations was assessed for geotechnical characteristics, mechanical strength, capillary absorption, and surface abrasion resistance according to African Regional Standards (ARS 674–677). Subsequently, a finite element analysis (FEA) framework was developed in ETABS to simulate linear static displacement and nonlinear pushover response under service and wind loading combinations. Laboratory results demonstrated that the ternary mix containing 15% GWP and 6% lime (Mix M4) yielded a peak dry bulk density of 2120 kg/m3 at 90 days. Mix M4 achieved a 28-day compressive strength of 5.22 MN/m2, representing a 108.8% increase over the 28-day control (2.50 MN/m2), and reached 6.50 MN/m2 at 90 days, reflecting a 124.1% increase over the 90-day control (2.90 MN/m2) and a 24.5% strength gain from 28 to 90 days. Stabilization significantly enhanced durability, reducing capillary water absorption to 0.68% and abrasion loss to 0.58%. Structural simulations revealed a strong numerical-experimental correlation (R2 = 0.92), with optimized blocks achieving up to a 65% reduction in maximum story displacement and a transition to high lateral stiffness. The findings validate GWP-lime stabilized CEBs as a structurally sound, environmentally resilient masonry system suitable for load-bearing affordable housing applications.
Article Details
Copyright (c) 2026 Muhammad Sani Abdullahi, Sa’eed Yusuf Umar, Ibrahim Ikara Abdulkarim (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
African Organization for Standardization. (1996). Compressed earth blocks – Standard specification for compressed earth blocks (ARS 674–677). ARSO.
Akula, P., & Little, D. N. (2020). Analytical tests to evaluate pozzolanic reaction in lime stabilized soils. MethodsX, 7, 100928. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mex.2020.100928 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mex.2020.100928
Fabbri, A., Morel, J.-C., & Gallipoli, D. (2018). Assessing the performance of earth building materials: A review of recent developments. RILEM Technical Letters, 3, 46–58. https://doi.org/10.21809/rilemtechlett.2018.71 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21809/rilemtechlett.2018.71
Jha, A. K., & Sivapullaiah, P. V. (2020). Lime stabilization of soil: A physico-chemical and micro-mechanistic perspective. Indian Geotechnical Journal, 50(3), 339– 347. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40098-019-00371-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40098-019-00371-9
López Boadella, Í., López Gayarre, F., Suárez González, J., Gómez-Soberón, J. M., López-Colina Pérez, C., Serrano López, M., & de Brito, J. (2019). The influence of granite cutting waste on the properties of ultra-high-performance concrete. Materials, 12(4), Article 634. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12040634 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12040634
Meng, J.-Y., Yi, H., Park, K.-B., Lin, R., & Wang, X.-Y. (2025). Partial replacement of ordinary Portland cement with belite-rich cement to produce limestone calcined clay cement to regulate the hydration process, improve strength, and reduce carbon emissions. Construction and Building Materials, 460, Article 139865. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.139865 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.139865
Nayak, S. K., Satapathy, A., & Mantry, S. (2022). Use of waste marble and granite dust in structural applications: A review. Journal of Building Engineering, 46, Article 103742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103742 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103742
Nshimiyimana, P., Messan, A., & Courard, L. (2020). Physico-mechanical and hygro-thermal properties of compressed earth blocks stabilized with industrial and agro by-product binders. Materials, 13(17), Article 3769. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13173769 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13173769
Obianyo, I. I., Onwualu, A. P., & Soboyejo, A. B. O. (2020). Mechanical behaviour of lateritic soil stabilized with bone ash and hydrated lime for sustainable building applications. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 12, Article e00331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2020.e00331 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2020.e00331
UN-Habitat. (2024). World cities report 2024: Envisaging the future of cities. United Nations Human Settlements Programme. https://unhabitat.org/wcr/
UN-Habitat. (2016). World cities report 2016: Urbanization and development - Emerging futures. United Nations Human Settlements Programme.
United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development. UN Publishing.