A Feasibility Study on Barriers to Access to Solar Photovoltaic Energy: A Survey Study of Moundou, Chad
Main Article Content
Abstract
It is widely acknowledged that energy sources such as the sun are potential providers of clean, limitless, and free energy that could satisfy energy needs now and in the future. This is particularly relevant when only small amounts of energy are necessary, such as in tiny homes or rural areas. For this study, we conducted a feasibility analysis by surveying local authorities and households in Moundou, Chad. The aim was to identify the barriers preventing households from accessing energy. The key decision-making data in this paper are based on the sample proportion of respondents and the margin of error associated with the five central pillars of the survey questionnaire. These five pillars, along with their proportions and margins of error, are as follows: consciousness and expertise, 96% and 3.14%; adoption-related obstacles, 95% and 3.49%; financial aspects, 98% and 2.24%; technical problems, 91% and 4.58%; and finally, community participation, 98% and 2.24%. The research findings were analyzed using logistic regression, ANOVA, chi-square tests of independence, and descriptive statistics. The significant barriers identified were financial factors and community engagement. To overcome these challenges, we have formulated the following recommendations: develop targeted financial mechanisms, implement awareness and education campaigns, enhance technical capacity building, and improve policy and regulatory frameworks.
Article Details
Copyright (c) 2025 Latchiba Wakiang Emile, Sebastian M. Waita, Robert Krueger, Julius Mwakondo Mwabora (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Latchiba Wakiang Emile, University of Nairobi, PO Box 30197-00100, Nairobi, Kenya.
a Condensed Matter Research Group, Department of Physics, University of Nairobi, PO Box 30197-00100, Nairobi, Kenya.
b Department of Social Science and Policy Studies, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 100 Institute Road, Worcester, MA, USA 01609 508.831.5110.
Sebastian M. Waita, University of Nairobi, PO Box 30197-00100, Nairobi, Kenya.
Condensed Matter Research Group, Department of Physics,
University of Nairobi, PO Box 30197-00100, Nairobi, Kenya.
Robert Krueger, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 100 Institute Road, Worcester, MA, USA.
Department of Social Science and Policy Studies,
Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 100 Institute Road, Worcester, MA, USA.
Julius Mwakondo Mwabora, University of Nairobi, PO Box 30197-00100, Nairobi, Kenya.
Condensed Matter Research Group, Department of Physics, University of Nairobi, PO Box 30197-00100, Nairobi, Kenya.
Adnan, N., & Shahrina, M. N. (2021). A comprehensive approach: Diffusion of environment-friendly energy technologies in residential photovoltaic markets. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 46, 101289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2021.101289
Adom, P. K. (2019). An evaluation of energy efficiency performances in Africa under heterogeneous technologies. Journal of Cleaner Production, 209, 1170–1181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.10.320
Adoum Abdoulaye, M., Waita, S., Wabuge Wekesa, C., & Mwabora, J. M. (2024). Optimal sizing of an off-grid and grid-connected hybrid photovoltaic-wind system with battery and fuel cell storage system: A techno-economic, environmental, and social assessment. Applied Energy, 365, 123201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.123201
Alkawsi, G., Ibrahim, N., Al-Sharafi, M. A., Mustafa, A. S., Radzi, H. M., & Capretz, L. F. (2024). Determinants of uptake the residential solar photovoltaic system and its impact on environmental sustainability: Evidence from PLS-SEM and fuzzy sets (fsQCA). Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal, 57, 101795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2024.101795
Arieska, P. K., & Herdiani, N. (2018). MARGIN OF ERROR BETWEEN SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING AND STRATIFIED SAMPLING.
Bandaru, S. H., Becerra, V., Khanna, S., Espargilliere, H., Torres Sevilla, L., Radulovic, J., Hutchinson, D., & Khusainov, R. (2021). A General Framework for Multi-Criteria Based Feasibility Studies for Solar Energy Projects: Application to a Real-World Solar Farm. Energies, 14(8), 2204. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14082204
Blimpo, M. P., & Cosgrove-Davies, M. (2019). Electricity Access in Sub-Saharan Africa: Uptake, Reliability, and Complementary Factors for Economic Impact. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1361-0
Casati, P., Moner-Girona, M., Khaleel, S. I., Szabo, S., & Nhamo, G. (2023). Clean energy access as an enabler for social development: A multidimensional analysis for Sub-Saharan Africa. Energy for Sustainable Development, 72, 114–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2022.12.003
Chankseliani, M., & McCowan, T. (2021). Higher education and the Sustainable Development Goals. Higher Education, 81(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-020-00652-w
Chirambo, D. (2018). Towards the achievement of SDG 7 in sub-Saharan Africa: Creating synergies between Power Africa, Sustainable Energy for All and climate finance in-order to achieve universal energy access before 2030. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 94, 600–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.06.025
Devine-Wright, P., & Sherry-Brennan, F. (2019). Where do you draw the line? Legitimacy and fairness in constructing community benefit fund boundaries for energy infrastructure projects. Energy Research & Social Science, 54, 166–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2019.04.002
Duman, A. C., & Güler, Ö. (2018). Techno-economic analysis of off-grid PV/wind/fuel cell hybrid system combinations with a comparison of regularly and seasonally occupied households. Sustainable Cities and Society, 42, 107–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2018.06.029
Ebissa, T. T., & Asfaw, A. S. (2024). Gender diversity and profit efficiency of microfinance institutions: A Sub-Saharan study. PLOS ONE, 19(8), e0307758. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307758
Feron, S., Cordero, R. R., Damiani, A., & Jackson, R. B. (2020). Climate change extremes and photovoltaic power output. Nature Sustainability, 4(3), 270–276. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-00643-w
Gafa, D. W., Egbendewe, A. Y. G., & Jodoin, L. (2022). Operationalizing affordability criterion in energy justice: Evidence from rural West Africa. Energy Economics, 109, 105953. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2022.105953
Ghaleb, B., Abbasi, S. A., & Asif, M. (2023). Application of solar PV in the building sector: Prospects and barriers in the GCC region. Energy Reports, 9, 3932–3942. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2023.02.085
Haou, E., Allarané, N., Aholou, C. C., & Bondoro, O. (2024a). Stakeholder-Based Optimal Indicators for Urban Sustainability Assessment in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Case Study from the City of Moundou in Chad. Sustainability, 16(19), 8372. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16198372
Haou, E., Allarané, N., Aholou, C. C., & Bondoro, O. (2024b). Stakeholder-Based Optimal Indicators for Urban Sustainability Assessment in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Case Study from the City of Moundou in Chad. Sustainability, 16(19), 8372. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16198372
Hesselink, L. X. W., & Chappin, E. J. L. (2019). Adoption of energy-efficient technologies by households – Barriers, policies and agent-based modelling studies. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 99, 29–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.09.031
Hu, J.-L., & Yang, P.-S. (2024). Interactive Cycles between Energy Education and Energy Preferences: A Literature Review on Empirical Evidence. Energies, 17(20), 5092. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17205092
Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change (Ed.). (2014). Summary for Policymakers. In Climate Change 2013 – The Physical Science Basis (1st ed., pp. 1–30). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
IRENA_RE_Capacity_Statistics_2021 (1).pdf. (n.d.).
Irfan, M., Elavarasan, R. M., Hao, Y., Feng, M., & Sailan, D. (2021). An assessment of consumers’ willingness to utilize solar energy in China: End-users’ perspective. Journal of Cleaner Production, 292, 126008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126008
Jabeen, G., Wang, D., Ahmad, M., Işık, C., Pinzón, S., Rehman, A., & Ongan, S. (2024). Transitioning to sustainable energy: Multidimensional factors guiding solar power technology adoption. Energy, 312, 133468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2024.133468
Jahangiri, M., Soulouknga, M. H., Bardei, F. K., Shamsabadi, A. A., Akinlabi, E. T., Sichilalu, S. M., & Mostafaeipour, A. (2019). Techno-econo-environmental optimal operation of grid-wind-solar electricity generation with hydrogen storage system for domestic scale, case study in Chad. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 44(54), 28613–28628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.09.130
Johannsen, R. M., Østergaard, P. A., & Hanlin, R. (2020). Hybrid photovoltaic and wind mini-grids in Kenya: Techno-economic assessment and barriers to diffusion. Energy for Sustainable Development, 54, 111–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2019.11.002
Kamal, A., Al-Ghamdi, S. G., & Koc, M. (2019). Revaluing the costs and benefits of energy efficiency: A systematic review. Energy Research & Social Science, 54, 68–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2019.03.012
Kojucharov, N. (2007). Poverty, Petroleum & Policy Intervention: Lessons from the Chad-Cameroon Pipeline. Review of African Political Economy, 34(113). https://doi.org/10.1080/03056240701672619
Mah, D. N., Wang, G., Lo, K., Leung, M. K. H., Hills, P., & Lo, A. Y. (2018). Barriers and policy enablers for solar photovoltaics (PV) in cities: Perspectives of potential adopters in Hong Kong. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 92, 921–936. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.04.041
Mathew, T. C., & Nagaraja Pandian, S. (2024). Unveiling the shadows: A qualitative exploration of barriers to rooftop solar photovoltaic adoption in residential sectors. Clean Energy, 8(5), 218–228. https://doi.org/10.1093/ce/zkae065
Mogrovejo-Narvaez, M., Barragán-Escandón, A., Zalamea-León, E., & Serrano-Guerrero, X. (2024). Barriers to the Implementation of On-Grid Photovoltaic Systems in Ecuador. Sustainability, 16(21), 9466. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16219466
Mondal, M. A. H., Bryan, E., Ringler, C., Mekonnen, D., & Rosegrant, M. (2018). Ethiopian energy status and demand scenarios: Prospects to improve energy efficiency and mitigate GHG emissions. Energy, 149, 161–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.02.067
Mugisha, J., Ratemo, M. A., Bunani Keza, B. C., & Kahveci, H. (2021). Assessing the opportunities and challenges facing the development of off-grid solar systems in Eastern Africa: The cases of Kenya, Ethiopia, and Rwanda. Energy Policy, 150, 112131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2020.112131
Mulugetta, Y., Ben Hagan, E., & Kammen, D. (2019). Energy access for sustainable development. Environmental Research Letters, 14(2), 020201. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aaf449
Naing, L., Nordin, R. B., Abdul Rahman, H., & Naing, Y. T. (2022). Sample size calculation for prevalence studies using Scalex and ScalaR calculators. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 22(1), 209. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-022-01694-7
Nambisan, S., Siegel, D., & Kenney, M. (2018). On open innovation, platforms, and entrepreneurship. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 12(3), 354–368. https://doi.org/10.1002/sej.1300
Neely, S., Eldredge, C., & Sanders, R. (2021). Health Information Seeking Behaviors on Social Media During the COVID-19 Pandemic Among American Social Networking Site Users: Survey Study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 23(6), e29802. https://doi.org/10.2196/29802
Nihan, S. T. (2020). Karl Pearsons chi-square tests. Educational Research and Reviews, 15(9), 575–580. https://doi.org/10.5897/ERR2019.3817
Nuru, J. T., Rhoades, J. L., & Gruber, J. S. (2021). The socio-technical barriers and strategies for overcoming the barriers to deploying solar mini-grids in rural islands: Evidence from Ghana. Technology in Society, 65, 101586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101586
Obaideen, K., Olabi, A. G., Al Swailmeen, Y., Shehata, N., Abdelkareem, M. A., Alami, A. H., Rodriguez, C., & Sayed, E. T. (2023). Solar Energy: Applications, Trends Analysis, Bibliometric Analysis and Research Contribution to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Sustainability, 15(2), 1418. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021418
Palm, A. (2017). Peer effects in residential solar photovoltaics adoption—A mixed methods study of Swedish users. Energy Research & Social Science, 26, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2017.01.008
Petersen, J. S., & Allman, P. H. (2019). The Margin of Error on Damages Calculations Based on Sample Survey Data in Class Action Wage and Hour Cases. 25(1).
Praveenkumar, S., Gulakhmadov, A., Kumar, A., Safaraliev, M., & Chen, X. (2022). Comparative Analysis for a Solar Tracking Mechanism of Solar PV in Five Different Climatic Locations in South Indian States: A Techno-Economic Feasibility. Sustainability, 14(19), 11880. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141911880
Rebucas, M., Radam, J. L., Molero, N., Macayana, R. R., Go, C., Abellana, D. P., Ubando, A., Culaba, A., & Ocampo, L. (2024). An integrated fuzzy evaluation of photovoltaic systems adoption barriers in rural island communities of developing economies. Energy for Sustainable Development, 80, 101424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2024.101424
Rolffs, J. L., Rogge, R. D., & Wilson, K. G. (2018). Disentangling Components of Flexibility via the Hexaflex Model: Development and Validation of the Multidimensional Psychological Flexibility Inventory (MPFI). Assessment, 25(4), 458–482. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191116645905
Royal, K. (2017). A Guide for Making Valid Interpretations of Student Evaluation of Teaching (SET) Results. Journal of Veterinary Medical Education, 44(2), 316–322. https://doi.org/10.3138/jvme.1215-201R
Sadath, A. C., & Acharya, R. H. (2024). Exploring the Dependency between Energy Access and other Sustainable Development Goals: Global Evidence. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 14(1), 544–551. https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.13670
Serdar, C. C., Cihan, M., Yücel, D., & Serdar, M. A. (2021). Sample size, power and effect size revisited: Simplified and practical approaches in pre-clinical, clinical and laboratory studies. Biochemia Medica, 31(1), 27–53. https://doi.org/10.11613/BM.2021.010502
Sharma, S. K., Mudgal, S. K., Thakur, K., & Gaur, R. (2020). How to calculate sample size for observational and experimental nursing research studies? 10(01).
Shulla, K., Voigt, B.-F., Cibian, S., Scandone, G., Martinez, E., Nelkovski, F., & Salehi, P. (2021). Effects of COVID-19 on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Discover Sustainability, 2(1), 15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-021-00026-x
Sindhu, S., Nehra, V., & Luthra, S. (2016a). Identification and analysis of barriers in implementation of solar energy in Indian rural sector using integrated ISM and fuzzy MICMAC approach. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 62, 70–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.04.033
Sindhu, S., Nehra, V., & Luthra, S. (2016b). Identification and analysis of barriers in implementation of solar energy in Indian rural sector using integrated ISM and fuzzy MICMAC approach. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 62, 70–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.04.033
Sokolnikova, P., Lombardi, P., Arendarski, B., Suslov, K., Pantaleo, A. M., Kranhold, M., & Komarnicki, P. (2020). Net-zero multi-energy systems for Siberian rural communities: A methodology to size thermal and electric storage units. Renewable Energy, 155, 979–989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.03.011
Solano, E. S., & Affonso, C. M. (2023). Solar Irradiation Forecasting Using Ensemble Voting Based on Machine Learning Algorithms. Sustainability, 15(10), 7943. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15107943
Soulouknga, M. H., Falama, R. Z., Ajayi, O. O., Doka, S. Y., & Kofane, T. C. (2017). Determination of a Suitable Solar Radiation Model for the Sites of Chad. Energy and Power Engineering, 09(12), 703–722. https://doi.org/10.4236/epe.2017.912045
Van Opstal, W., & Smeets, A. (2022). Market-Specific Barriers and Enablers for Organizational Investments in Solar PV—Lessons from Flanders. Sustainability, 14(20), 13069. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013069
Vignon, Y. R., Cyrino Oliveira, F. L., Caiado, R. G. G., & Schery, C. A. D. (2025). Solar electrification in isolated Amazonian systems: Barriers and mitigation strategies. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 208, 115072. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2024.115072
Walker, T. R. (2021). (Micro)plastics and the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry, 30, 100497. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsc.2021.100497
Yadav, P., Davies, P. J., & Khan, S. (2020). Breaking into the photovoltaic energy transition for rural and remote communities: Challenging the impact of awareness norms and subsidy schemes. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, 22(4), 817–834. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-020-01823-0
Yeatts, D. E., Auden, D., Cooksey, C., & Chen, C.-F. (2017). A systematic review of strategies for overcoming the barriers to energy-efficient technologies in buildings. Energy Research & Social Science, 32, 76–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2017.03.010
Article Sidebar
